Mind Map Overal Idea Content Speed Notes Quick Coverage The circle, thesquare, the rectangle, the quadrilateral and the triangle are examples of plane figures; the cube, the cuboid, the sphere, the cylinder, the cone and the pyramid areexamples of solid shapes. (Scroll down till end of the page) Study Tools Audio, Visual & Digital Content readmore
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The circle, thesquare, the rectangle, the quadrilateral and the triangle are examples of plane figures; the cube, the cuboid, the sphere, the cylinder, the cone and the pyramid areexamples of solid shapes.(Scroll down till end of the page)
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Plane figures areof two-dimensions (2-D) and the solid shapes are of three- dimensions (3-D). The corners of a solid shape are called its vertices; theline segments ofits skeleton areits edges; and itsflat surfaces areits faces. A net is a skeleton-outline of a solid that can be folded to make it. The same solid can haveseveral types ofnets. Solid shapes can be drawn on a flat surface (like paper) realistically. We call this 2-D representation of a 3-Dsolid. Two types ofsketches of asolid are possible: (a) An oblique sketch does nothave proportional lengths. Still it conveys all important aspects of the appearance of the solid. (b) An isometric sketch is drawn on an isometric dot paper, a sample of which isgiven at theend of thisbook. In an isometric sketch of the solidthe measurements kept proportional. Visualising solidshapesis a veryuseful skill. Youshould be ableto see ‘hidden’ parts of thesolid shape. Different sections of a solid can be viewed in many ways: (a) One way is to viewby cutting or slicing the shape, whichwould result in the cross- section of thesolid. (b) Another way isby observing a 2-D shadow of a 3-Dshape. (c) A third wayis to lookat the shapefrom different angles; the front-view, theside- view and thetop view canprovide a lotof information aboutthe shape observed.
19. When a grouping symbol preceded by ‘ sign is removed or inserted, thenthe sign of eachterm of thecorresponding expression ischanged (from ‘ + ‘ to ‘−’ and from‘− ‘ to + ‘).
Mind Map Overal Idea Content Speed Notes Quick Coverage Wastewater: Black-brown water which is rich in lather , mixed with oil that goes down the drains from skins, showers, toilets, laundries is called wastewater. sewage: Wastewater is generated in homes, industries, agricultural fields and in other human activities. This is called sewage. (Scroll down till readmore
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Wastewater: Black-brown water which is rich in lather , mixed with oil that goes down the drains from skins, showers, toilets, laundries is called wastewater.
sewage: Wastewater is generated in homes, industries, agricultural fields and in other human activities. This is called sewage. (Scroll down till end of the page)
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Sewage is a liquid waste which causes water and soil pollution.
Wastewater is treated in a sewage treatment plant.
Treatment plants reduce pollutants in wastewater to a level where nature can take care of it.
Where underground sewerage systems and refuse disposal systems are not available, the low cost on-site sanitation system can be adopted.
By-products of wastewater treatment are sludge and bio gas.
Open drain system is a breeding place for flies, mosquitoes and organisms which cause diseases.
We should not defecate in the open. It is possible to have safe disposal of excreta by low cost methods.
Sewage Treatment:
Aeration: Air is bubbled through the wastewater while it is continuously stirred.
Filtration: Aerated water passes through a deep filter of layered sand, fine gravel and medium gravel.
Chlorination: Chlorine is added and mixed to the filtered water until water is clear.
Wastewater Treatment Plant (WWTP):
Wastewater passes through screens to remove large objects.
To go to a grit and sand removal tank at low speed.
Water is allowed to settle in large tank.
Floating solids are removed with skimmer.
Settled solids (sludge) are removed with scraper.
Clear water is called clarified water.
Water is then decomposed by anaerobic bacteria in a tank and air is passed.
Microbes settled at bottom as activated sludge and water from top is removed.
Mind Map Overal Idea Content Speed Notes Quick Coverage Electricity Electricity is a branch of physics that deals with the study of phenomena associated with stationary or moving electric charges. Therefore, the various manifestations of electricity are the result of the accumulation or motion of electrons. Electricity is classified into two types. They are Static readmore
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Electricity
Electricity is a branch of physics that deals with the study of phenomena associated with stationary or moving electric charges.
Therefore, the various manifestations of electricity are the result of the accumulation or motion of electrons.
Electricity is classified into two types. They are Static Electricity and Current Electricity. (Scroll down to continue …)
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ELECTRICITY
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Static Electricity
Static Electricity is a branch of physics that deals with the study of phenomena associated with stationary electric charges.
Current Electricity.
Current Electricity is a branch of physics that deals with the study of phenomena associated with moving electric charges.
Electric Charge
Electric charge is a fundamental property of matter.
Though we can’t say what is charge with certainty, we can study the properties and behaviour of charge.
Charge is defined as the property associated with matter due to which it produces and experiences electrical and magnetic effects.
The electric charge is caused by the elementary particles, electrons and protons.
Protons possess positive charge, electrons possess negative charge and Neutrons do not possess any charge.
Laws of Electric Charges:
Similar electric charges repel each other
Dissimilar (opposite) electric charges attract each other.
Conductors And Insulators
Conductors are the materials in which electrons move freely.
Example: All metals.
Insulators are the materials which do not have any free electrons to move.
Example: Wood and plastic.
Electric Circuit:
The path of flow of current is known as electric circuit.
Electric Potential Energy
Electric potential energy of a group of charges is defined as the amount of work done in bringing the charges to their respective positions in the system.
Electric Potential At A Point
The electric potential at a point, in an electric field, is defined as the amount of work done in moving a unit + ve charge from infinity to that point, without acceleration or without a change in K.E., against the electric force due to the electric field.
The potential at a point is given by the expression V = W/q
The S.I Unit of potential is mathematically written as 1 volt = 1 joule/1 coulomb.
Potential is a scalar quantity, therefore it is added algebraically.
For a positively charged body, potential is positive and for a negatively charged body potential is negative.
Electric current flows through a conductor only if there is a potential difference across its ends.
Work done in moving a charge in the electric field of another charge is given by:
W = Vq
More is the charge on a body, the more is its potential due to it.
Electric current flows through a conductor only if there is a potential difference across its ends.
Positive charge flows from a body at higher potential to a body at lower potential and negative charge flows from a body at a lower potential to a body at higher potential.
Potential difference
The work done in moving a unit positive charge from one point to another is known as Potential Difference between those points.
Example
The work done in moving a unit positive charge from point A to another point B is known as Potential Difference between the points A and B.
SI Unit: volt
The unit of potential difference is volt (V).
Volt
In other words, Volt is defined as the potential difference between two points, if 1 Joule of work is done in moving 1 coulomb charge from one point to another.
Potential difference between two points across a conductor is measured by using a voltmeter.
Voltmeter is always connected in parallel to the points across which potential difference is to be measured.
Battery:
Battery is an arrangement that creates a constant potential difference between its terminals.
Battery is defined as a combination of a number of cells in series.
Electric Current
The literary meaning of Electric Current isflow of electric charge.
Definition
Electric current is defined as the amount of charge passing a cross section of conductor per a unit time (second in SI Units).
Electric current is expressed mathematically in terms of rate of flow of charges as:
Electric Current =(Net Charge, Q)/(Time,t)
i =n.et , Where n = number of electrons, e = charge of one electron, t= time taken to flow,
Q = charge through the crosssection of the conductor.
The SI unit of electric current is Ampere (A).
Direction of electric current is the same as the direction of positive charges But it is opposite to the direction of flow of negative charges.
Potential difference, V between two points at a constant temperature is directly proportional to the current, I.
V ∝ I
⇒ V = lR
Where, R is a constant termed as ElectricResistance.
The SI unit of resistance is ohm (Ω)
Q.1. State Ohm’s law. How can it be verified?
Answer: It states “Physical conditions’ remaining same, the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across its two ends”.
i.e., V∞ I
or
V = IR, where, R is the constant of proportionality.
R is called the electrical resistance or resistance of the conductor.
Verification:
V∞ I or V = IR, where the constant of proportionality R is called the electrical resistance or resistance of the conductor.
The following circuit diagram is used to verify Ohm’s law.
Take a few cells; connect one cell across a nichrome wire AB, along with an ammeter and a voltmeter as shown in figure. Note the voltage and the current from the voltmeter and the
ammeter.
Now, connect two cells and again note the voltage and the current. Repeat the procedure for three cells and four cells. Calculate the ratio for each set.
You will find the ratio is nearly the same in all cases. If a graph of current against voltage is plotted, it will turn to be a straight line as shown in figure. This shows that the current is directly proportional to the potential difference.
Laws of Electric Resistance
Or
Factors Affecting Resistance
Resistance is directly proportional to length of conductor.
Resistance is inversely proportional to the area of cross-section.
Resistance is directly proportional to the temperature.
Depends on the nature of the material. This is determined by the resistivity of material.
Laws of Electric Resistance
The resistance of any substance depends on the following factors,
Length of the substance.
Cross sectional area of the substance.
The nature of material of the substance.
Temperature of the substance.
There are mainly four (4) laws of resistance from which the resistivity or specific resistance of any substance can easily be determined.
The resistance of a substance is directly proportional to the length of the substance. Electric resistance, R of a substance is written as
Where L is the length of the substance.
The resistance of a substance is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area of the substance. Electrical resistance R of a substance is
Where A is the cross-sectional area of the substance.
Resistivity
Combining these two laws we get,
Where, ρ (rho) is the proportionality constant and known as resistivity or specific resistance of the material of the conductor or substance.
Now if we put L = 1 and A = 1 in the equation, we get, R = ρ.
That means resistance of a material of unit length having unit cross – sectional area is equal to its resistivity or specific resistance.
Resistivity of a material can alternatively be defined as the electrical resistance between opposite faces of a cube of unit volume of that material.
Unit of Resistivity
The unit of resistivity can be easily determined form its equation
The unit of resistivity is Ω – m in the MKS system and Ω – cm in the CGS system and 1 Ω – m = 100 Ω – cm.
Resistivity
Resistivity is the property of the material. It does depend on the length and area of the conductor.
Resistance = (Resistivity) x (Length of Conductor) / (Cross Sectional Area)
The SI unit of resistivity is ohm-metre.
Resistivity of metals varies from 10-8 to 10-6.
Resistivity of insulators varies from 1012 to 1017
Copper and aluminium are used in electrical transmission due to their low resistivity.
Net Resistance in Resistors In Series
When several resistors are joined in series, the resistance of the combination Rs equals the sum of their individual resistances, R1, R2, R3
It is mathematically expressed as: RS = R1 + R2 + R3
Thus greater than any individual resistance.
Derivation of Net Resistance of Resistors In Series
When two or more resistors are joined in series, then their total resistance is given by the formula:
⇒ RS = R1 + R2 + R3
The current will remain the same through all resistors.
Total voltage is given by: V = V1 + V2 + V3
Voltage across each resistor is given as: V1 = IR1, V2 = IR2, V3 = IR3
⇒ V = V1 + V2 + V3
But Total Voltage V = I × R, Here I = Current in electric circuit and R = Net Resistance in the circuit.
⇒ IR = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 ⇒ IR = I(R1 + R2 + R3) ⇒ R = R1 + R2 + R3
Resistors In Parallel
The reciprocal of the equivalent resistance of a group of resistances joined in parallel is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances.
(V/Rp) = (V/R1) + (V/R2) + (V/R3)
Derivation of Net Resistance of Resistors In Parallel
In this case, voltage is the same across each resistor and is equal to applied voltage.
Total current is given as:
I = I1 + I2 + I3
It is observed that the total current I, is equal to the sum of the separate currents through each branch of the combination.
I = I1 + I2 + I3 ————– (i)
Let Rp be the equivalent resistance of the parallel combination of resistors.
By applying Ohm’s law to the parallel combination of resistors, we have: I = V/Rp ————– (ii)
On applying Ohm’s law to each resistor, we have
I1= V /R1; I2= V /R2; and I3= V /R3 —————– (iii)
From Eqs. (ii) to (iii), we have
(V/Rp) = (V/R1) + (V/R2) + (V/R3)
⇒ V(1/Rp) = V[(1/R1) + (1/R2) + (1/R3)]
⇒ (1/Rp) = [(1/R1) + (1/R2) + (1/R3)] ————– ()
Thus, we may conclude that the reciprocal of the equivalent resistance of a group of resistances joined in parallel is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances.
Advantages of Parallel Combination over Series Combination:
If one component fails in series, then the complete circuit is broken and no component can work properly. Different appliances need different current, this can be met through parallel.
Heating effects of Electric Current
When charge Q moves against the potential difference V in time t, the amount of work is given by-
Joule’s Law of Heating
Heat produced in a resistor is directly proportional to square root of current.
It is also directly proportional to resistance for a given current.
Also, directly proportional to time
⇒ H = l2 Rt
Filament of an electric bulb is made up of tungsten because it has a very high melting point and also does not oxidise readily at a high temperature.
Electric fuse is a safety device to protect the electrical appliance from short circuits.
Electric Power
The rate at which electric energy is dissipated or consumed in an electric current. The SI unit of power is Watt.
⇒ P = Vl
⇒ P = l2 R = V2/R
The commercial unit of electric energy is kilowatt hour (KWh).
Mind Map Overal Idea Content Speed Notes Quick Coverage Factorisation: Representation of an algebraic expression as the product of two or more expressions is called factorization. Each such expression is called a factor of the given algebraic expression. (Scroll down till end of the page) Study Tools Audio, Visual & Digital Content When we factorise readmore
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Factorisation: Representation of an algebraic expression as the product of two or more expressions is called factorization. Each such expression is called a factor of the given algebraic expression. (Scroll down till end of the page)
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When we factorise an expression, we write it as a product of factors. These factors may be numbers, algebraic variables or algebraic expressions.
An irreducible factor is a factor which cannot be expressed further as a product of factors.
A systematic way of factorising an expression is the common factor method. It consists of three steps:
Write each term of the expression as a product of irreducible factors
Look for and separate the common factors and
Combine the remaining factors in each term in accordance with the distributive law.
Sometimes, all the terms in a given expression do not have a common factor; but the terms can be grouped in such a way that all the terms in each group have a common factor. When we do this, there emerges a common factor across all the groups leading to the required factorisation of the expression. This is the method of regrouping.
In factorisation by regrouping, we should remember that any regrouping (i.e., rearrangement) of the terms in the given expression may not lead to factorisation. We must observe the expression and come out with the desired regrouping by trial and error.
A number of expressions to be factorised are of the form or can be put into the form: a2 + 2ab + b2, a2 – 2ab + b2, a2 – b2 and x2 + (a + b)x + ab. These expressions can be easily factorised using Identities I, II, III and IV
a2 + 2ab + b2 = (a + b)2
a2 – 2ab + b2 = (a – b)2
a2 – b2 = (a + b) (a – b)
Factorisation
x2 + (a + b)x + ab = (x + a)(x + b)
In expressions which have factors of the type (x + a) (x + b), remember the numerical term gives ab.
Its factors, a and b, should be so chosen that their sum, with signs taken care of, is the coefficient of x.
We know that in the case of numbers, division is the inverse of multiplication. This idea is applicable also to the division of algebraic expressions.
In the case of division of a polynomial by a monomial, we may carry out the division either by dividing each term of the polynomial by the monomial or by the common factor method.
In the case of division of a polynomial by a polynomial, we cannot proceed by dividing each term in the dividend polynomial by the divisor polynomial. Instead, we factorise both the polynomials and cancel their common factors.
In the case of divisions of algebraic expressions that we studied in this chapter, we have Dividend = Divisor × Quotient.
In general, however, the relation is Dividend = Divisor × Quotient + Remainder
Thus, we have considered in the present chapter only those divisions in which the remainder is zero.
There are many errors students commonly make when solving algebra exercises.
Mind Map Overal Idea Content Speed Notes Quick Coverage Forest: Large area of land thickly covered with trees, bushes, etc. We get various products from the forests around us. Forest is a system comprising various plants, animals and micro-organisms. In a forest, trees from the uppermost layer, followed by shrubs, the herbs to the lowest readmore
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Forest: Large area of land thickly covered with trees, bushes, etc.
We get various products from the forests around us.
Forest is a system comprising various plants, animals and micro-organisms.
In a forest, trees from the uppermost layer, followed by shrubs, the herbs to
the lowest layer of vegetation. (Scroll down till end of the page)
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Different layers of vegetation provide food and shelter for animals, birds and insects.
The various components of the forest are interdependent on one another.
The forest keeps on growing and changing, and can regenerate.
In the forest, there is interaction between soil, water, air and living organisms.
Forests protect the soil from erosion.
Soil helps forests to grow and regenerate.
Deforestation: Cutting down of trees is known as deforestation.
Importance of Forests:
Forests:
Provide timber,
Purify air,
Provide shelter,
Prevent soil,
Absorbs noise. Independence of Plants and Animals in Forest: Plants and animals depends on each other to remain alive.
All organisms interact with each other and their physical environment to derive and survive.
Effects of deforestation: Amount of carbon dioxide in air will increase, resulting in the increase of earth’s temperature. (Global Warming) Animals will not get food and shelter.
Soil will not hold water, which will cause floods.
Endanger lives and environment. Conservation of Forests: Do not allow overgrazing.
Promote afforestation.
Protect wildlife.
Food Chain:
Interdependence between producers and consumers studied in form of various linkage that appears as a chain or Interdependence of organisms which shows who eats whom.
Food Web: A system of interdependent food chains used to represent various relationships in organisms.
