Particles:

Particles are very small in size. Therefore we cannot see particles with our naked eye. 

Characteristics of the particles of matter: 

(1) All matter (elements or compounds) consists of very small particles which can exist independently and are called particles. 

(ii) The particles of matter are in a state of continuous motion and possess kinetic energy. 

(iii) There are intermolecular spaces in between the particles (molecules) of matter.

(iv) The particles (molecules) of matter attract each other with a force called intermolecular force. 

Intermolecular force is maximum in solids and least in the gases.

These material particles can be touched, moved by changing temperature or attracted by decreasing or increasing forces of attraction or repulsion.

2. States of Matter

Matter exists in three different physical states namely solid, liquid and gas.

One substance such as water can exist in all the three states such as, ice in solid state, water in liquid state and steam or vapours in gaseous state.

The state of matter depends on temperature, forces of attraction between their constituent particles etc.

3. Interconversion of Matter

All these three different states of matter are interconvertible depending upon temperature and pressure.

The state of matter can be changed by changing temperature or pressure. 

Due to change in temperature and pressure there will be a change in inter-particle space as well as force between them, resulting in change in physical state.

Examples: 

• Applying pressure and reducing temperature can liquefy gases.
• Solid CO₂ gets converted directly to a gaseous state on decrease of pressure to 1 atmosphere without changing into a liquid state. Due to this fact solid CO₂ is also known as DRY ICE.

4. Plasma: It is the fourth state of matter consisting of super energetic and super excited particles. These particles are in the form of ionised gases.

Examples:

• The plasma in stars is formed due to high temperature. 
• Glowing plasma formed in fluorescent tubes and neon sign bulbs.

These devices contain inert gases which get ionised due to the passage of electric current. The colour of the glowing plasma depends upon the nature of the gas.

5. Sublimation: The process in which a solid state directly changes into a gaseous state on heating or vice-versa on cooling.

6. Melting or Fusion: The process of changing a solid into a liquid state by absorbing heat at a constant temperature is known as Melting or Fusion. 

7. Freezing or Solidification: The process of changing a liquid into solid state by losing heat at a constant temperature is known as Freezing or Solidification.

8. Condensation: The process of changing a gas into a liquid state by giving out heat at constant temperature is known as Condensation .

Boiling or Vaporisation : The process of changing a liquid into a gaseous state by absorbing heat at constant temperature  is known as Boiling or Vaporisation .

Boiling is a bulk phenomenon. Particles from the bulk (whole) of the liquid change into a vapour state.

Evaporation: The phenomenon of changing the physical state from liquid to vapour, at any temperature is called evaporation.

Evaporation is a surface phenomenon. Particles from the surface gain required energy to overcome the forces of attraction present in the liquid and change into the vapour state.

The rate of evaporation depends upon the surface area exposed to the atmosphere, the temperature, the humidity and the wind speed.

Evaporation causes cooling.

Evaporation takes place at all temperatures, below the boiling point of a liquid

Factors affecting evaporation:

• Rate of evaporation increases with increase in surface area.

• Rate of evaporation increases with increase in temperature.

• Rate of evaporation increases with decrease in Humidity.

• Rate of evaporation increases with increase in wind speed.

Latent heat of boiling or Latent heat of Vaporisation: Latent heat of boiling or Latent heat of Vaporisation is the heat energy required to change 1 kg of a liquid to gas at atmospheric pressure at its boiling point.

Kelvin is the SI unit of temperature. 

0°C = 273.16 K. 

For convenience, we take 0°C = 273 K after rounding off the decimal. 

To change a temperature on the Kelvin scale to the Celsius scale you have to subtract 273 from the given temperature, and to convert a temperature on the Celsius scale to the Kelvin scale you have to add 273 to the given temperature.

Conversion Formula: t°C = (t+273) K

Boiling point or Vaporisation point: Boiling point or Vaporisation point is the fixed temperature at which a liquid converts into a gaseous state at atmospheric pressure.

Melting point or Fusion point: Melting point or Fusion point is the temperature at which a solid starts converting into a liquid state at atmospheric pressure.

Evaporation Causes cooling: During evaporation the particles at the surface of the liquid gain energy from the surroundings and change into vapour.. Therefore Evaporation Causes cooling effect.

Sponge can be compressed although it is solid: Sponge contains minute holes in which air is trapped.So when it is pressed, the air gets expelled and the sponge gets compressed. Also,the material of the sponge is not rigid. 

Temperature does not change during change of state: The temperature remains constant at its melting and boiling points (during change of state) until all the substance melts or boils.

Because the heat supplied is continuously used up in changing the state of the substance by overcoming the force of attraction between the particles.

There is no increase in the kinetic energy of the particles and thus, temperature does not change. 

This heat energy absorbed without showing any rise in temperature is given the name latent heat of fusion/latent heat of vaporisation.

Effect of pressure on physical state of a substance: 

If pressure is applied, melting point decreases and boiling point increases

When pressure is increased, the particles come closer and the force of attraction increases between them and this results in a change of state. 

Example: When high pressure is applied to a gas by reducing its temperature, the particles of gas come close and get converted to a liquid. This is also known as liquefaction.

The amount of heat energy required in changing a 1 kg of solid into liquid at atmospheric pressure and its melting point is known as the latent heat of fusion.

[ Lice = 80 cal/g = 3.34 × 105 J/kg].

• The amount of heat which is required to convert 1 kg of the liquid (at its boiling point) to vapours of gas without any change in temperature is known as latent heat of vaporisation.

 [Lwater =540 cal/g= 22.5 × 105 J/kg].

• The amount of heat absorbed or liberated , Q = mL.

 • The specific heat is the amount of heat per unit mass required to raise the temperature by one degree Celsius.

• Q = m.s. t, where m = mass of the body, s = specific heat of the body and t is temperature difference and m.s is called thermal capacity.

• Change of liquid into vapours at any temperature below the boiling point.

Takes the latent heat from the body. Thus, the body cools when evaporation takes place.

Evaporation:

(1) Evaporation is a slow process.

(ii) Evaporation takes place at the surface mass of the liquid.

(iii) Evaporation takes place at all temperatures.

(iv) The substance becomes cool due to evapora- tion process.

(v) Heat is absorbed from the surroundings due to Evaporation. Absorption of heat from the surroundings causes cooling effect.

Boiling:

(1) Boiling is a rapid process.

(ii) Boiling takes place throughout the mass of a liquid.

(iii) Boiling takes place at a definite temperature called the boil- ing point.

(iv) The substance remains hot during the boiling process.

(v) Heat is required from an external source such as a burner for boiling to take place. 

Scales of temperature

• Three scales are commonly used for measuring temperature, namely, the Celsius scale, the Fahrenheit scale and the Kelvin scale.

• The relation between the Celsius and the Kelvin scale can be expressed as:

C + 273 = K

• The relation between the Celsius and the Fahrenheit scale can be expressed as follows.

Specific Heat

11.8 NATURAL PHENOMENA AND CONSEQUENCES OF HIGH SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF WATER

Some consequences of high specific heat capacity of water are given below.

(i) The climate near the seashore is moderate :

The specific heat capacity of water is very high (= 1000 cal kg-1 °C-1 or 4200 J kg-1 K-¹). It is about five times as high as that of sand. Hence the heat energy required for the same rise in temperature by a certain mass of water will be nearly five times that required by the same mass of sand. 

Similarly, a certain mass of water will give out nearly five times more heat energy than that given by sand of the same mass for the same fall in temperature. 

As such, sand (or earth) gets heated or cooled more rapidly as compared to water under similar conditions. 

Thus, a large difference in temperature is developed between the land and the sea due to which land and sea breezes are formed”. These breezes make the climate near the seashore moderate.

(ii) Hot water bottles are used for fomentation: The reason is that water does not cool quickly due to its large specific heat capacity, so a hot water bottle provides heat energy for fomentation for a long time.

(iii) Water is used as an effective coolant: By allowing water to flow in pipes around the heated parts of a machine, heat energy from such parts is removed (e.g. radiators in car and generator are filled with water). Water in pipes extracts more heat from surroundings without much rise in its temperature because of its large specific heat capacity.

(iv) In cold countries, water is used as a heat reservoir for wine and juice bottles to avoid their freezing: The reason is that water due to its high specific heat capacity can impart a large amount of heat before reaching up to the freezing temperature. Hence bottles kept in water remain warm and they do not freeze even when the surrounding temperature falls considerably.

(v) Farmers fill their fields with water to protect the crops from frost: In the absence of water, if on a cold winter night, the atmospheric temperature falls below 0°C, the water in the fine capillaries of plants will freeze, so the veins will burst due to the increase in volume of water on freezing. As a result, plants will die and the crop will be destroyed. In order to save crop on such cold nights, farmers fill their fields with water because water has a high specific heat capacity, so it does not allow the temperature in the surrounding area of plants to fall up to 0°C.

(vi) All plants and animals have a high content of water in their bodies: All plants and animals have nearly 80% to 90% of water in their bodies so it helps in maintaining the body temperature nearly same in all seasons due to high specific heat capacity of water.

SOME EXAMPLES OF HIGH AND LOW THERMAL CAPACITY

(1) The base of a cooking pan is made thick : By making the base of the cooking pan thick, its thermal capacity becomes large and it imparts sufficient heat energy at a low temperature to the food for its proper cooking. Further it keeps the food warm for a long time, after cooking.

(2) The base of an electric iron is made thick and heavy: By doing so, the thermal capacity of the base becomes large and it remains hot for a long duration even after switching off the current.

(3) The vessel used for measurement of heat (i.e., calorimeter) is made of thin sheet of copper:

The reason is that the specific heat capacity of copper is low and by making the vessel thin, its thermal capacity becomes low so that it takes a negligible amount of heat from its contents to attain the temperature of the contents.

Mixture: A mixture is a matter that contains more than one pure substance in any ratio/proportion.

A mixture is an impure form of matter.

Example:

Water in milk, lemon juice, Ginger Garlic paste, etc.,

The mixture may or may not be separated into its constituent particles by physical processes.

Substance: A matter that cannot be separated into its constituent particles by any physical process is known as a substance.

Example:

Solution: A homogeneous mixture of two or more substances is called a solution.

Example:

Tea, sugar, and common salt are dissolved in water.

Alloy: A homogeneous mixture of metals is called an alloy.

Properties of the Solution: 

• A solution is a homogeneous mixture
• Particles are extremely small, not visible to the naked eye
• The light path is invisible in solution.
• Solute particles cannot be separated by filtration

Concentration of solution: The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute present in a given quantity of the solution.

Unsaturated and Saturated Solutions: a solution in which a larger quantity of solute can be dissolved without raising its temperature, is called an unsaturated solution.

• A solution in which no more solute can be dissolved at a certain temperature, is called a saturated solution.

Solubility: The maximum amount of a solute that can be dissolved in 100 grams of a solvent at a specified temperature is known as the solubility of the solute in that solvent.

Suspension: a heterogeneous mixture of solids and liquids where the solid particles are suspended throughout the medium. 

Example: Mixture of chalk powder and water

Properties of Suspension

• Particles are visible to the naked eye

• Light path in a suspension is visible

• Particles settle down

Colloidal Solution: Colloidal Solution Is a heterogeneous mixture, but appears to be homogeneous.

Examples: Milk, soap lather, soda water, pumice stone, rubber, bread, fog, cloud, insecticide spray, butter, etc.

Properties of colloidal solutions

• Heterogeneous mixture

• Particle size is small, not visible to the naked eye

• Light path can be visible;

• Particles do not settle down

• Substances cannot be separated by filtration

Tyndall Effect: Scattering of light beam by suspended particles in the solution.

Physical and Chemical changes: 

Physical and change: The changes in which no new substances are formed are called physical changes. 

Chemical change: The changes in which new substances are formed are called chemical changes.

SEPARATION OF MIXTURES

The method of separation depends on both the type of mixture and the physical properties of its constituents. 

These are :

(i) The physical state of the constituents.

(ii) The differences in the physical properties

of the constituents, such as:

(a) boiling point 

(b) melting point

(c) density

(d) magnetic properties

(e) ability to sublime

(f) volatility

(g) solubility in various solvents.

• Evaporation: Used for separating mixtures of volatile solvents and non-volatile solutes.

Working Principle:

One component should be non-volatile. It may or may not be soluble in water.

Example: Separating salt from its solution

• Centrifugation used for separating components based on the difference in their weights.

Working Principle:

Difference in the densities of two liquids.

Example: Separating mixtures of cream from milk

• Separating Funnel: Used for separating two or more immiscible liquids.

Working Principle:

Immiscible liquids with different densities get separated into different layers if they are in the same container.

Example: Separating oil and water

Sublimation:

Sublimation is the process of converting a solid into vapour and returning it to the solid state without passing through the liquid state.

Sublimation is used to separate sublimable solids from their mixtures.

Working Principle:

One of the components can be sublime.

Example: Separating ammonium chloride from a mixture

Chromatography:

The process of separating the different dissolved constituents of a mixture by their adsorption (adsorption refers to the collection of one substance on the surface of another substance.) over an appropriate adsorbing material is called chromatography.

Chromatography is used to separate those solutes that dissolve in the same solvent.

Working Principle:

Adsorption/partition

Example: Separating the components of a dye

Distillation: 

Distillation is the process of heating a liquid to convert it into vapours and then condensing the vapours back into a liquid.

Distillation is used to separate two miscible liquids that boil without decomposition.

Working Principle:

One component should be a soluble solid in a liquid.

Example: Separating a mixture of acetone and water

Fractional distillation 

Fractional distillation is a process that involves the distillation and collection of fractions or different liquids boiling at different temperatures.

Fractional distillation is used to separate a mixture of liquids when their boiling temperatures differ by less than 25 K. 

Example: Separating different components of petroleum

Crystallization: Used to separate pure solids from a solution by forming crystals.

Working Principle:

A solid dissolved in a liquid is separated by evaporating the solvent completely by heating the mixture. 

Example: Obtaining pure crystals of copper sulphate from an impure sample.

Differences Between Mixture And Compound

Charged Particles in Matter

• Whenever we rub two objects together, they become electrically charged. 
• This is because atoms contain charged particles in them. 
• Therefore, atoms can be divided further into particles i.e proton, electron and neutron.

Atoms consist of an equal number of  protons and electrons.

Protons exist in the interiors of the atom and electrons exist in the exteriors of the atom. Therefore, electrons can be removed from an atom.

Since electrons exist in the exteriors of the atom they can be removed from an atom.

Dalton’s Atomic Theory

The postulates of the atomic theory by John Dalton

• The matter is made up of tiny particles called Atoms that cannot be divided.
• Atoms are never formed or destroyed during a chemical reaction. 
• Atoms of an element exhibit the same nature. 
• Atoms of the same element have equal size, mass and they exhibit similar chemical properties.
• Atoms of different elements exhibit variant chemical properties. 
• Atoms form compounds by combining in a ratio of whole numbers.
• A compound contains molecules in which a constant number and types of atoms are present.

Failure of Dalton’s Atomic Theory

Dalton suggested that atoms can neither be created nor destroyed and are indivisible. 

But the discovery of electrons and protons in atoms disproved this aspect of Dalton’s theory.

Thomson’s Model of an Atom

According to J.J. Thomson, the structure of an atom can be compared to Christmas pudding.

According to this model the electrons are present inside a positive sphere.

An atom is composed of a positively charged sphere in which electrons are embedded.

Atoms are neutral as the positive and negative charges are equal in number.

Rutherford’s Model of an Atom

Rutherford’s Experiment

Rutherford experimented by passing alpha rays through a thin gold foil.

He expected that the gold atoms would deflect the Alpha particles.

Based on his experiment Rutherford gave the nuclear model of an atom as the following.

Rutherford’s Atomic Model

Rutherford’s Atomic Model is known as Planetary Atomic Model and Nuclear Atomic Model.

According to Rutherford’s Atomic Model:

• Atoms contain a lot of unoccupied space
• The center of the atom is highly positive , Rutherford named it as nucleus
• The atom contains an equal amount of positive and negative charges.

Nucleus of Atom

The nucleus is located at the center of the atom.

All the mass of the atom is because of the nucleus.

The electrons revolve around the nucleus in circular parts which called Orbits

The size of an atomic nucleus is much smaller than its atom.

Drawbacks of the Nuclear Atomic Model

The Rutherford’s Atomic Model failed to explain how an atom remains stable despite having positive and negative charges present in it. 

Maxwell’s theory of radiation if any charged particle moves in a circular motion it radiates energy. 

So, if electrons move in a circular motion around the nucleus they should radiate some energy as a result this decreases at the speed of the electrons. As a result, they would fall into the nucleus and the nucleus should collapse because of its high positive charge. 

But it is not happening because the matter is not collapsing. 

Nucleons:  The subatomic particles present in the nucleus are collectively called Nucleons. Protons and Neutrons are nucleons.

Bohr’s Model of an Atom

Bohr Atomic Model states as the following:

• Electrons revolve around the nucleus in particular circular paths, called orbits.
• The electrons do not emit any energy while moving in their orbits.
• The orbits are also called Energy Levels.
• Energy Levels or Orbits are represented by using letters or numbers as shown in the figure.

Neutron:

J. Chadwick discovered Neutron, a subatomic particle of an atom. 

Neutron carries no charge. 

Subatomic Particles of Atom

Electronic Configuration: The distribution of electrons in different shells or orbits is called Electronic Configuration. 

• If Orbit number = n
• Then number of electrons present in an Orbit = 2n²
• So, for n =1
• Maximum electrons present in shell – K = 2 * (1)² = 2
• The outermost shell can contain at most 8 electrons.
• The shells in an atom are filled in sequence.
• Thus, until the inner shells of an atom are filled completely the outer shells cannot contain any electrons.

Valency

• Valence Electrons – Electrons existing in the outermost orbit of an atom are called Valence Electrons.
• The atoms which have completely filled the outermost shell are not very active chemically.
• The valency of an atom or the combining capacity of an atom is given by the number of elements present in the outermost shell.
• For Example, Helium contains two electrons in its outermost shell which means its valency is two. In other words, it can share two electrons to form a chemical bond with another element.
• What happens when the outermost shell contains a number of electrons that are close to its maximum capacity?

Valency in such cases is generated by subtracting the number of electrons present in the outermost orbit from octet (8). For example, oxygen contains 6 electrons in its outermost shell. Its valency is calculated as: 8 – 6 = 2. This means oxygen needs two electrons to form a bond with another element.

Representation Element:

Atomic Number of an Element

Atomic Number (Z) = Number of protons in an atom

Mass Number of an Element

Mass Number = Number of protons + Number of neutrons

Isotopes

• The atoms of an element can exist in several forms having similar atomic numbers but varying mass numbers.
• Isotopes are pure substances.
• Isotopes have a similar chemical nature.
• Isotopes have distinct physical characteristics.

Use of Isotopes:

1. The fuel of Nuclear Reactor – Isotope of Uranium

2. Treatment of Cancer – Isotope of Cobalt

3. Treatment of Goiter – Isotope of Iodine

Example: Consider two atomic species namely U and V. Are they isotopes?

From the above example, we can infer that U and V are isotopes because their atomic number is the same.

Isobars

The atoms of several elements can have a similar mass number but distinct atomic masses. Such elements are called Isobars. 

They consume more energy as compared to plants. Most of the tissues they contain are living.

Cell growth in animas is more uniform.

The structural organisation of organs and organ systems is far more specialized and localised in complex animals than even in very complex plants.

Plant tissues:

Meristematic Tissue: The growth of plants occurs only in certain specific regions. This is because the dividing tissue
also known as meristematic tissue is the region where they are present, meristematic tissues are classified as apical, lateral and intercalary. Apical meristem is present at the apical or growing tips of stems and roots. Apical meristem
increases the length of the plant. Lateral meristem is present in the radial portion of the stem or root. Lateral meristem increases the girth of the plant.

Intercalary meristem occurs at the base of the leaves or at the internodes. Intercalary meristem increases the length of the internode. Permanent Tissue Old meristematic cells lose the capacity to divide and transform into permanent tissues.

This process of taking up a permanent shape, size, and function is called differentiation. These are cells which have lost their capacity to divide but are specified to provide strength, flexibility and elasticity to the plant. These tissues can be further classified into simple permanent, complex permanent and special tissues. Simple permanent can be categorized into parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma based on their function. Parenchyma- they are live cells. They are usually loosely packed. This tissue provides support to plants and also stores food. In some situations it contains chlorophyll and performs photosynthesis and then it is called chlorenchyma. Parenchyma which contains large air cavities in aquatic plants is called aerenchyma. The aerenchyma helps in buoyancy. Collenchyma – These are elongated living cells with small intercellular spaces. Their cell walls
are made up of cellulose and pectin. Collenchyma occurs in the peripheral regions of stems and
leaves to provide mechanical support and flexibility in plants. Sclerenchyma – These are long, dead cells with a deposit of lignin in their cell wall. They have no intercellular spaces. Sclerenchyma occurs around the vascular tissues in stems, in the veins of leaves, and in the hard covering of seeds and nuts. They provide strength to the plant.

Epidermis aids in protection against loss of water, mechanical injury and invasion by parasitic
fungi. Since it has a protective role to play, cells of epidermal tissue form a continuous layer
without intercellular spaces. Epidermis of the leaf contains small pores called stomata. These are
necessary for gases exchange and transpiration. Cork – This is the outer protective tissue which replaces the epidermal cells in older roots and stems. Cork cells are dead and lack intercellular spaces. Their cell walls are thickened by suberin
which makes them impermeable to water and gas molecules.

Complex permanent tissue:
Complex permanent tissue comprises of conducting tissues called xylem and phloem. Xylem is useful in transport of water and soluble substances. Xylem consists of tracheids, vessels, fibres and xylem parenchyma. Transport of minerals and water is unidirectional in xylem. Phloem is useful in transport of food molecules. Phloem comprises of sieve tubes, sieve cells, companion cells, phloem fibres and phloem parenchyma. Phloem is unlike xylem in that materials can move in both directions in it.

Animal Tissues:

These are the tissues present only in animals. Different types of animal tissues are epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscle tissue and nervous tissue.

Epithelial Tissue:
Epithelial tissue forms a lining all over the body of the organism. It protects the inner lying
parts.

It is also secretory in function to secrete sebum and excrete wastes along with sweat.

Sometimes it is absorptive in nature. Epithelial tissues act like a barrier to keep the different body systems separate. These are tightly packed and form a continuous sheet without intercellular spaces.

Squamous epithelium has flat and thin cells with no intercellular spaces.

Squamous epithelium provides is found in the outer layer of the skin, lining the cavities of blood vessels, lung alveoli, lining of oesophagus and the lining of the mouth. Stratified epithelium has epithelial cells lined up one over another. It is found in the epidermis of the skin.

It helps to prevent wear and tear of tissue. Columnar epithelium consists of cylindrical cells. It is found in the lining of the stomach and intestines, and facilitates the movement across the epithelial barrier.

Columnar epithelial tissue with cilia is known as ciliated epithelium. These cilia push the mucus forward into the nasal tract to clear it. Cuboidal epithelium consists of cubical cells. It is found in the lining of the kidney tubules, salivary glands and thyroid glands, where it provides mechanical support. Glandular epithelium consists of modified columnar cells, and is found in the sweat glands and tear glands to produce secretions.

Connective tissue :
Connective tissues are fibrous in nature.

They include blood, bone, ligament, cartilage, areolar and adipose tissues.

These help in binding other tissues together. They also provide support to other tissues.

Blood has plasma and blood cells.

The blood cells suspended in the plasma include RBC’s, WBC’s and platelets.

Blood flows within blood vessels, and transports gases, digested food, hormones and waste materials to different parts of the body. Bone cells are embedded in a hard matrix composed of calcium and phosphorus compounds.

Bones anchor the muscles and support the main organs of the body. Two bones can be connected to each other by another type of connective tissue called ligament. Ligaments are tough and elastic. They provide strength and flexibility. Tendons connect muscles to bones and are another type of connective tissue. Tendons are tough and non-elastic, and provide great strength and limited flexibility. Cartilage has widely spaced cells suspended in a matrix of proteins and sugars. It is found in the nose, ears, and the rings of the trachea to give flexibility. Areolar connective tissue is found between the skin and muscles, around blood vessels and nerves
and in the bone marrow. It helps in repair of tissues. Adipose tissue contains cells filled with fat globules. It is found below the skin and acts as an
insulator.

Muscular Tissue:
Muscle tissues consists of elongated cells also called muscle fibres.

This tissue is responsible for movement.

Muscles contain special proteins called contractile proteins which contract and relax to cause movement.

These are elastic in nature they have tensile strength.

These muscles can be
voluntary or involuntary in function. Muscular tissues are of three kinds namely striated muscles, unstriated muscles and cardiac muscles. Striated muscle cells are long, cylindrical, unbranched and multinucleate.

These are voluntary muscles.

Smooth muscles or involuntary muscles are found in the iris of the eye, in ureters and in the bronchi of the lungs.

These are also called unstriated muscles. The cells are long with pointed ends and uninucleate.

Hear muscles or cardiac muscles are cylindrical, branched and uninucleate.

Nervous Tissue
Nervous tissues are found in the brain, spinal cord and nerves.

Nervous tissue is the tissue which works in coordinating the organs of the body by generating impulses.

It is made up of special cells called as neurons.

Each neuron consists of a cell body, which contains a nucleus, cytoplasm, called cyton, from which long thin hair like parts arise.

Usually each neuron has a single long part, called the axon, and many short branched parts called dendrites.

Distance and Displacement

• Distance: The total length of path covered by an object is said to be the distance travelled by it.
• Displacement: Gap between the initial and final positions of an object is said to be its displacement. Or
• The length of a line segment that joins the initial and final positions of an object is known as the displacement.

Difference Between Displacement and Displacement

Speed And Velocity Speed

• Speed: The distance travelled by an object in unit time is referred to as speed. 
• Its S.I unit is m/s. 
• In general speed refers to average speed.
• Average speed: For non-uniform motion, the average speed of an object is obtained by dividing the total distance travelled by an object by the total time taken.

• For a uniform motion, the average speed of an object is equal to its instantaneous speed throughout the path.

Velocity

• Average Velocity or Velocity : For a uniform motion in a straight path, the average velocity is equal to its instantaneous velocity throughout the path.

• Velocity of an object is equal to the instantaneous velocity of an object.

Differences Between Speed and Velocity

Uniform And Non-Uniform motion

• Uniform motion or non accelerated motion: When an object covers equal distances in equal intervals of time, it is said to be in uniform motion. Uniform motion is a non-accelerated motion.
• Non-uniform motion or accelerated motion: Motions where objects cover unequal distances in equal intervals of time. Uniform motion is an accelerated motion.

Acceleration

Acceleration: Change in the velocity of an object per unit time.

Graphical representation of motions

(i) Distance-time graph

For a distance-time graph, time is taken on x-axis and distance is taken on the y-axis.

[Note: All independent quantities are taken along the x-axis and dependent quantities are taken along the y-axis.]

(ii) Velocity-time graph

Equation of motion by graphical methods

Derivation Of Equations Of Motion

Equations of motion can be derived by two methods. They are (i) Graphical Method. (ii) Algebraic Method

Derivation of The Equations of Motion By Algebraic Method:

(a) Velocity-time relation:

Derivation of S = ut + ½ at²

(ii) The equation for position-time relation:

Derivation of v² – u²  = 2as

(iii) Equation for position-velocity relation:

Conclusions From a Distance – Time Graph

Uniform Circular Motion

When a body moves in a circular path with uniform speed, its motion is called uniform circular motion.