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In order to provide food for a large population – regular production, proper management and distribution of food is necessary. (Scroll down till end of the page)

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Micro-organisms: Micro-organisms are too small and are not visible to the un aided eye.

They can survive under all types of environment, ranging from ice cold climate to hot springs and deserts to marshy lands.

They are also found inside the bodies of animals including humans. (Scroll down till end of the page)

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Natural Resources: Resources include everything provide by the nature. They form the wealth of a country.

Types of Natural Resources:
(i) Inexhaustible: There are some resources that are present unlimited in nature and will not be exhausted even if used continuously.

Example: Sunlight, Air. (Scroll down till end of the page)

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Biodiversity: Occurrence of innumerable types of organisms and the whole range of their varieties (biotypes) adapted to different climates, environments and areas. Wildlife sanctuary, national park and bio-sphere reserve are names given to the areas meant for conservation and preservation of forest and wild animals. (Scroll down till end of the page)

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Combustion: The process of burning a substance in the presence of air (oxygen) andundergoes a chemical reaction to produce heat and light. The substances which burn in air are called combustible.

Oxygen (in air) is essential for combustion. During the process of combustion, heat and light are given out. Ignition temperature is the lowest temperature at which a combustible substancecatches fire.

Types of combustion: The type of combustion differs depending on the type of fuel. (Scroll down till end of the page)

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Reproduction is a process in which the organisms produce the young ones of their own kind. There are two modes by which animals reproduce.

These are: (i) Sexual reproduction, and (ii) Asexual reproduction (Scroll down till end of the page)

Sexual Reproduction

Reproduction resulting from the fusion of male and female gametes is called sexual reproduction.

The reproductive organs in the female include ovaries, oviducts and uterus.

The reproductive organs in male include testes, sperm ducts and penis.

The ovary produces female gametes called ovum and the testes produce male gametes called sperms. The fusion of ovum and sperm is called fertilization.

zygote: The fertilized egg is called a zygote.

internal fertilization: Fertilization that takes place inside the female body is called internal fertilization. This is observed in human beings and other animals such as hens, cows and dogs.

external fertilization: Fertilization that takes place outside the female body is called external fertilization. This is observed in frogs, fish, starfish, etc.

The zygote divides repeatedly to give rise to an embryo. The embryo gets embedded in the wall of the uterus for further development.

The stage of the embryo in which all the body parts are identifiable is called foetus.

Animals such as human beings, cows and dogs which give birth to young Ones.

Asexual Reproduction: The type of reproduction in which only a single parent is involved is called asexual reproduction. The transformation of the larva into adult through drastic changes is called Asexual Reproduction

budding: In hydra, new individuals develop from buds. This method of asexual reproduction is called budding.

binary fission.: Amoeba reproduces by dividing itself into two. This type of asexual reproduction is called binary fission.

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Humans become capable of reproduction after puberty. Puberty sets in between the ages of 11 years and 19 years. These children are called adolescents.

The onset of puberty brings about growth of the reproductive organs. Hairs grow at various places on the body.

Breasts develop in girls.

Facial hair (moustache and beard) appear in boys.

Voice of boys become hoarse as voice box enlarges during adolescence.

Children gain height during adolescence.

Puberty: It is the time when sex organs begin to work.

It brings about growth in reproductive organs and changes in the body.

Puberty starts at the beginning of adolescence. (Scroll down till end of the page)

Reaching the age of Adolescence

The onset of puberty starts much earlier in girls, between 8 and 13 years of age, whereas it starts between 10 and 14 years of
age in boys and lasts upto 2 to 4 years.

Changes during Puberty:
(i) Increase in Height: The bones of the legs and arms elongate and the individual becomes tall and lanky.

(ii) Changes in Body Shape: In boys, the body becomes more muscular, the shoulder becomes wider.

In girls, the body shows curves in certain parts and the region below the waist become wider and broader.

(iii) Change in Voice: In boys, the voice becomes hoarse and heavy due to the extra growth of larynx (voice box).

In girls, the voice becomes high pitched and shriller.

(iv) Sweat and sebaceous glands: They become more active and secrete more.

(v) Emotional aspects develop.

Periodic cycle of 28 days. The onset of puberty and maturity of reproductive parts are controlled by hormones.

Hormones are secretions of endocrine glands which pour them directly into the blood stream.

Pituitary gland secretes hormones which include growth hormone and hormones that make other glands such as the testes, ovaries, thyroids and adrenals, secrete hormones.

Pancreas secretes insulin, thyroid produces thyroxin and adrenals produce adrenalin.

Testosterone is the male hormone and estrogens, the female hormone.

The uterine wall in females prepares itself to receive the developing fertilised egg.

Menstruation: In case there isno fertilisation, the thickened lining of the uterine wall breaks down and goes out of the body along with blood.This is called menstruation.

Sperm and Ovum fuses together to form a zygote.

Sex chromosomes in sperms determine the baby’s gender. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes in each cell.

A pair of chromosome forms the sex chromosomes. Males carry XY and females carry XX chromosomes.

If a sperm carrying X fertilises the ovum with X chromosome, then the resulting baby is a girl.

If a sperm carrying Y chromosome fertilises the ovum with X chromosome, then the resulting baby is a boy.

Hence, males are responsible for the gender of the newly formed babies, Not Women.

Reproductive Health:
It is important to eat balanced food and maintain personal hygiene during adolescence.

Cleaning of private parts is important to prevent possible infections.

The activity of sweat glands increases in puberty and releases bad odour from the body.

Thus frequent bathing is necessary. Physical exercise keeps the body fit and healthy as it releases lot of sweat.

Peer pressure is best addressed by self-confidence and a healthy lifestyle.

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Force: A push or a pull, that changes or tends to change the state of rest or of uniform motion of an object or changes its direction or shape.

A force arises due to the interaction between two objects.

Force has magnitude as well as direction.Therefore force is a vector quantity.

The SI unit of force is newton (Scroll down till end of the page)

A change in the speed of an object or the direction of its motion or both implies a change in its state of motion.

Force acting on an object may cause a change in its state of motion or a change in its shape.

Contact Non Contact Forces:

A force can act on an object with or without being in contact with it. Based on Contact the forces are classclassified as Contact Forces and Non Contact Forces.

Contact Forces: The forces act on a body when the source of force touches the body directly.

The point where the force is applied on an object is called the point of application of force (or point of contact).

Examples of Contact Forces:

(i) Muscular Force: The force exerted by the muscles of the body.

We use force acted by muscles of animals like Humans, bullocks, horses and camels to get our activities done.

(ii) Mechanical Force: The force acted by a machine.

Non-Contact Forces:

Non-Contact Forces: Forces which do not involve physical contact between two bodies on which they act.

Examples of Non-Contact Forces:

(i) Magnetic Force: A magnet exerts a non-contact force on objects made of iron, steel, cobalt or nickel.

(ii) Electrostatic Force: The force which result due to repulsion of similar charges or attraction of opposite charges.

(iii) Gravitational Forces: The force that exists between any two bodies by virtue of

Pressure

Pressure: Thrust acting per unit surface area is called pressure.

Thrust

Thrust is the force acting on an object perpendicular to its surface.

In SI system, pressure is measured in newton per square metre which is equal to 1 pascal (Pa).

Like solids, fluids (liquids and gases) also exert pressure.

A solid exerts pressure only in the downward direction due to its weight, whereas liquids and gases exert pressure inall directions.

Hence liquids and gases exert pressure on the walls of their container.

Atmospheric Pressure

Ttmosphere: The thick blanket of air that covers the earth is termed atmosphere.

The pressure exerted by the atmosphere is called atmospheric Pressure.

The tremendous atmospheric pressure surrounding us is not felt by us because the fluid pressure inside our bodies counter-balances the atmospheric pressure around us.

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Friction:

Friction is the force that resists the motion of one object against another.  It is the force felt between two surfaces when one attempts to slide against the other.

Causes of Friction: Friction exists between two surfaces due to irregularities on the surfaces of the objects in contact, interlocking of micro-level irregularities of the two surfaces and ploughing of harder surfaces into smoother surfaces.

Factors Affecting Friction:

(i) Roughness of the surface.

(ii) The extent to which the two surfaces press against each other.

(iii) Nature of the surface· (Scroll down till end of the page)

Types of Friction: Friction is classified into three types as: Static Friction, Sliding Friction, Rolling Friction.
(i) Static Friction: When a body is at rest, the force of friction is called the static friction and is always equal and opposite to the applied force.

limiting friction: The force of friction which acts when the body is just at the verge of sliding on the surface is called limiting friction.

Motion between two contacting surfaces

(ii) Sliding friction: The friction force which opposes the actual relative sliding motion between two contact surfaces.

Sliding friction is smaller than static friction.

(iii) Rolling Friction: The frictional force that exists between two surfaces when a body rolls over the other.

Rolling friction is smaller than sliding friction.

Static friction > Sliding friction > Rolling friction

Effects of Friction

(i) Friction produces heat.

(ii) Friction causes wear and tear.

(iii) Friction opposes motion.

Advantages of Friction

(i) Friction between pen and paper enables us to write on the paper.

(ii) Friction between our feet and the ground allows our movements like standing, walking and running.

(iii) Friction between the surface of the road and tyres of our vehicles allow the vehicles to move without slipping.

Disadvantages of Friction:

(i) Friction causes moving objects to stop or slow down.

(ii) Friction produces heat causing wastage of energy in machines.

(iii) Friction causes wear and tear of moving parts of machinery, soles of shoes, etc.

Friction is a necessary Evil:

As friction is advantageous to us it is considered as a friend but, due to its disadvantages it is a foe.

Depending on the circumstance, friction can be a help or a hindrance.

Thus it is a necessary evil.

Increasing Friction: By pressing the surfaces together more strongly.

For example, when brakes are applied on a bicycle or car, the brake pads press against a moving part of the wheel and the force of friction increases.

Friction can be increased by increasing the roughness of the surfaces in contact.

For example, treading of shoes and tyres is done to increase friction.

Reducing Friction: Friction between the sliding surfaces of two objects can be reduced by making the surfaces in contact smooth by polishing them.

Sliding friction between the moving parts of vehicles and machinery can be reduced by introducing oil, grease, graphite or any other lubricant.

Lubricant: A lubricant is a substance that reduces friction between surfaces in contact. This reduces the heat generated when the surfaces move. Lubricants can also transmit forces, transport foreign particles, or heat or cool the surfaces. 

Rolling friction is less than sliding friction. Hence, sliding friction is replaced by rolling friction by using rollers, like ball bearings between the hub and the axles in the moving parts of machines and vehicles.

Friction is reduced by providing wheels,

Examples: suitcase, school bags of kids, etc.

Streamlined shape: Aeroplanes, boats, fishes and birds which move through fluids have bodies of special shape, called streamlined shape, The streamlined shape reduces the friction due to fluid and reduces the energy usage.

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Sound: Vibrations that travel through the air or another medium and can be heard
when they reach a person’s or animal’s ear. Musical Sound: The sound which produce a pleasing effect on the ear.

Noise: The sounds which produce a jarring or unpleasant effect

Types of Sound:
(i) Audible Sound: Vibrations whose frequency lies between 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz (20
kHz) are heard by human ear.

(ii) Inaudible Sound: The sounds having frequencies above 20,000 Hz and below
20 Hz cannot be heard by the normal human ear.

Low frequency sounds which cannot be heard are called infrasonics.

High frequency sounds which cannot be heard are called ultrasonics.
In human beings, the vibration of the vocal cords produces sound.

Sound travels through a medium (gas, liquid or solid). It cannot travel in
vacuum.

The eardrum senses the vibrations of sound. It sends vibrations to the inner ear. From
there, the signal goes to the brain.

That is how we hear. Higher the frequency of vibration, the higher is the pitch, and shriller is the
sound. Unpleasant sounds are called noise.

Excessive or unwanted sounds lead to noise pollution. Noise pollution may pose health problems for human beings. Lack of sleep, hypertension (high bloodpressure), anxiety and many more health disorders may be caused by noise pollution.

A person who is loud sound continuously may get temporary or even permanent impairment of hearing.

Attempts should be made to minimise noise pollution. Silencing devices must be installed in air craft engines, transport vehicles, industrial machines and home appliances. Plantation on the roadside and elsewhere can reduce noise pollution.

Amplitude: The maximum extent of vibration of the vibrating body from its mean position is known as its amplitude.

Time Period: One complete to and fro movement of the pendulum around its mean positionis called one oscillation.

The time taken by the vibrating particle to complete one oscillation is called time period.

Frequency: The number of vibrations made by the vibrating body in one second is known as its frequency. The SI unit of frequency is the hertz (Hz).

Characteristics of Sounds:
(i) Loudness: The sensation produced in the ear which enables us to distinguish between a loud and a faint sound. Larger the amplitude of vibration, the louder is the sound produced. It is proportional to square of the amplitude.

(ii) Pitch: The characteristics of sound which distinguishes between a shrill sound and a soft sound.

Higher the frequency of vibration, higher is the pitch and shrillness.

(iii) Quality: Characteristic which enables us to distinguish between musical notes emittedby different musical instruments or voices even though they have the same.

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Materials through which electric current can pass through easily are called electric conductors or conductors of electricity.

Electrical conductivity Or Electric Conductivity: Electrical conductivity is a measure of the ability of a substance to allow the flow of electric current.

Among solids metals and graphite are good conductors which have high electrical conductivity.

Some liquids are also good conductors. (Scroll down till end of the page)

Pure water or distilled water is a poor conductor of electricity. But the presence of even small amount of impurities(salts and minerals) makes water a good conductor as it contains ions through which conduction takes place.

Hence water from taps, wells, lakes, etc. conduct electricity as they contain impurities.

Most liquids that conduct electricity are solutions of acids, bases and salts.

When electricity is passed through a conducting solution, the molecules of the solution dissociate into ions.

Ions are atoms or group of atoms with a positive or a negative charge.

These ions cause electrical conduction through the liquid.

Electrolyte: A liquid That conducts electricity is called an electrolyte.

Electrolysis:
The process of chemical decomposition compound in a solution when an electric current passes through it is called electrolysis.

Electrolysis, is due to the chemical effect of electric current.

electrolytic cell: Two electrodes are inserted in the solution and are connected to the terminals of a battery with a switch in between them.

This arrangement is called an electrolytic cell.

anode: The electrode that is connected to the positive terminal of the battery is called the anode,

cathode: The electrode that is connected to the negative terminal of the battery is called the cathode.

Electrolysis is used in refining, electroplating and extraction of metals from impure samples.

electrorefining: This process of refining and extraction of metals from impure samples is called electrorefining.

electroplating: electroplating is the process of coating a useful metal with another metal.

chemical effect of electric current: The process of passing an electric current through a conducting solution to cause chemical reactions is known as the chemical effect of electric current.

Chemical effects of electric current:
(i) Formation of bubbles of a gas on the electrodes.

(ii) Deposition of metal on electrodes.

(iii) Change in colour of solutions.
Electroplating: The process of depositing a layer of any desired metal on another material by means of electricity is called electroplating. The object to be electroplated is made the cathode (negative electrode) by connecting it to thenegative terminal of the battery.

The metal which has to be deposited is made the anode (positive electrode) by connecting it to the positive terminal of the battery. Usually a salt solution of the metal to be coated is made as anode.

Application of Electroplating:
(i) Metals that rust are often coated with other metals to prevent rusting.

(ii) Chromium plating is found on bath taps, car bumpers, etc. to give a bright attractive appearance and resist scratches and wear.

(iii) Silver plating is done on cutlery and jewellery items.

(iv) Tin cans, used for storing food, are made by electroplating tin onto iron.

Tin is less reactive than iron. Thus, food does not come into contact with iron and is protected from getting spoilt.

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Some objects can be charged by rubbing with other
objects. There are two kinds of charges — positive charge and negative charge Like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other. (Scroll down till end of the page)

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Light is the natural agent that stimulates sight and makes things visible. Light is reflected from all surfaces. It is a form of energy.

Reflection of Light: Bouncing back of light after striking any surface such as a rough surface, Smooth surfce, shiny surface or polished surface, into the same medium, is called reflection of light. (Scroll down till end of the page)

luminous objects: Objects that give out light on their own are called luminous objects.

Examples: Flame, Sun, Glowing bulb

Non-luminous objects: Objects that do not give out light on their own are called non-luminous objects.

Examples: Rocks, Plasic Toys, Walls of room.

The Non – Luuminous objects, reflect light that falls on them.

When the reflected light enters into our eyes from the objects we could see them.

Types of Reflection:
(i) Regular Reflection: When a beam of parallel light rays is incident on a smooth and plane surface, the reflected rays will also be parallel. This type of reflection is called Regular Reflection.

The reflection from a plane mirror is an example of regular reflection.

(ii) Diffused or Irregular Reflection: When a parallel beam of light is incident upon a rough or uneven surface, it is reflected in many directions due to presence of irregularities on that.

multiple reflections: If a reflected light ray is reflected again on being incident on another surface, it is termed as multiple reflections.

Multiple reflections are used in periscope, kaleidoscope etc.

Periscopes are used in submarines, war tanks and by soldiers in bunkers to see objects.

In a kaleidoscope, beautiful patterns are formed due to multiple reflections.

Laws of reflection of light:

(i) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

(ii) Incident ray, reflected ray and the normal drawn at the point of incidence to the reflecting surface, lie in the same plane.

Lateral inversion: Lateral inversion is the effect produced by a plane mirror in reversing images from left to right.

Example: Our left hand will appear as right and vice versa.

Characteristics of the image formed by a plane mirror

Size the image formed by a plane mirror is equal to the siz of the object.

The image formed by the plane mirror is left-right inverted.

The image formed by the plane mirror erect and virtual formed behind the mirror.

Since the distance of the object in front of the mirror two mirrors inclined to each other give multiple images.

Sunlight: Sunlight, called white light, consists of seven colours.

dispersion: Splitting of light into its constituent colours is known as dispersion.

Human Eye:

A normal eye can see nearby and distant objects clearly.

Visually challenged persons can read and write using Braille system.

Visually challenged persons develop their other senses more sharply to improve their interaction with their environment.

Parts of Human Eye:
(i) Cornea: Transparent bulge on the front surface of the eyeball which protects the eye andhelps in refraction of light.

(ii) Iris: Coloured diaphragm behind the cornea which controls the amount of light
entering the eye.

(iii) Pupil: Dark hole in the middle of iris through which light enters the eye. (iv) Eye lens: Transparent, crystalline structure behind pupil and iris. (v) Ciliary muscles: Hole the eye lens in position and control the focal length of the eye lens.

(vi) Retina: Surface of the rear part of the eyeball where the light entering the eye is focused.

(vii) Rods and Cones: Rod cells respond to the brightness of light while cone cells.

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